NOTE: The principal characters in the Gospels are presented below in the order in which they are encountered in the biblical text. The later sections, involving John's Gospel and the Apostolic Acts, contain the more significant conclusions. Several characters who only appear outside the Gospels (namely Barnabas, Stephen, Paul, Judas Barsabbas, Silas, Luke, and Titus) are also discussed in view of their linkage through John Mark to the original disciples.
Jesus' initial followers, known as "Simon and those with him" (1:36), were four fishermen (1:16, 1:19): Simon, his brother Andrew, James son of Zebedee, and his brother John. The first two shared a house with Simon's mother-in-law in or near Capernaum (1:21, 1:29-30). The word adelphos (1:16, 1:19) is overtly employed to designate fraternal relationships in these texts, but "the son of" (1:19) is literally "the one of" (o tou; 1:20 proves the filial interpretation).
Levi son of Alphaeus, a tax collector, is the only other person overtly summoned to follow Jesus (2:14). Both the Hellenistic Leuis and the Hebraic Leui are favored by many manuscripts; some read "James son of Alphaeus."
At a subsequent dinner with "tax collectors and sinners," Jesus' followers are referred to as disciples for the first time (2:15).
The Twelve are listed as follows (3:16-19):
One early manuscript replaces "Thaddeus" with "Lebbaeus"; "Iscariot" has several variant spellings. The omission of "whom he also named apostles" (3:14) by many manuscripts is not significant, since in the succeeding phrase all employ apostelló in describing Jesus' charge to these disciples.
Mark uniquely notes that the sons of Zebedee were named Boanerges ("sons of thunder," 3:17) by Jesus; one early manuscript asserts that Jesus so designated all twelve apostles.
The second Simon's identification as "Cananaean" (3:18; "Cananite" in many manuscripts) almost certainly does not mean "zealot." The latter translation is due to improper harmonization from Luke (6:15) and a dubious derivation from the Hebrew qanna, used in the OT exclusively of divine "jealousy" (Ex. 20:5). The more likely source is the Hebrew qanah, "a place of reeds," employed as the name of a town in Asher (Gk. Kana, Josh. 19:28, identical to John 2:1 et al.; "Kanah" in English versions). The existence of another town with this name explains John's consistent use of the phrase "Cana of Galilee." The King James translation "Canaanite" is impossible; the latter is Chananaios (Matt. 15:22), while Simon is Kananaios.
That the term "disciples" is broader than "the Twelve" is demonstrated by the distinction between the latter and "those around Jesus" (4:10). Both groups constitute "his disciples" (4:34) over against the crowds (4:1).
A secondary commission of the Twelve appears in 6:7. They alone heard the discussion of primacy and offense (9:35) as well as the final passion prediction (10:32; 8:31 and 9:30 are directed at "his disciples"), witnessed James and John's attempt to gain special status from Jesus (10:41), accompanied Jesus to Bethany after his entry into Jerusalem (11:11), and attended the Passover (14:17). The bulk of the textually dubious "longer ending" is an appearance of the risen Christ to the Eleven (16:14).
Peter and the sons of Zebedee form an inner group of apostles at the raising of Jairus' daughter (5:37), the transfiguration (9:2), and Gethsemane (14:33). Together with Andrew, they heard the apocalyptic discourse on the Mount of Olives (13:3).
Peter identified Jesus as the Christ (8:29), rebuked Jesus after the first passion prediction (8:32), proposed to build tents at the transfiguration (9:5), proclaimed that he had given up everything to follow Jesus (10:28), and pointed out the fig tree's demise (11:21). He asserted that he would not deny Jesus (14:29), but did so anyway in the high priest's courtyard (14:66). He was intended as the special target of the women's resurrection testimony (16:7), which emphasis is repeated in the "shorter ending" of Mark (an insertion even more textually debatable than 16:9-20).
John rebuked an unauthorized exorcism (9:38). Both sons of Zebedee tried to gain special status from Jesus "in his glory" (10:35-37).
Two unnamed disciples procured a donkey for the entry into Jerusalem (11:1). Two unnamed disciples also procured the site for the Passover (14:13). The Emmaus disciples (Luke 24:13) are doubtless the ones who, according to the "longer ending," saw the risen Jesus "in another form" (16:12).
Judas Iscariot is mentioned in connection with his plot to betray Jesus (14:10, 14:43).
Mark alone reports a naked young man in Gethsemane (14:51), which account has no obvious function in the narrative. As a result, it is widely assumed that the young man was Mark himself.
The only undisputed reference to Jesus' mother in Mark occurs when she and Jesus' brothers sought an audience with Jesus at an unspecified house in Capernaum (3:31-35). Jesus' assertion that "whoever does the will of God is my brother and sister and mother," resulting in his identification of those already inside the house as his real mother and brothers, does not support the idea that his mother or brothers were faithful disciples at this point. In a preceding incident, "those who were close to him ... came out to get him, for they were saying that he was out of his mind" (3:21), but it is not clear whether this refers to his mother and brothers, some of the apostles he had just called, or some other group.
Jesus' relatives are identified by name during his appearance at the synagogue in Nazareth (6:3): his mother Mary, his brothers James, Joses, Judah, and Simon, and unnamed sisters. "Joses" is simply a Hellenized form of "Joseph"; one early manuscript employs the latter, while many manuscripts read "José."
Jesus is here called "the carpenter" (a few manuscripts read "the carpenter's son"). The absence of Jesus' father from this text suggests that he had died prior to Jesus' public ministry. John 6:42 does not contradict this; "we know who Jesus' father and mother are" hardly means "we know that both are still alive."
There is no valid basis for rendering adelphos, "brother," as "cousin." This notion is motivated by the dogma that Mary was semper virgo, based on Neoplatonism's denigration of sexuality. A cousin is anepsios (son of father's brother, Num. 36:11; Mark and Barnabas, Col. 4:10). A general relative is suggenés (distinguished from adelphos, Luke 21:16).
Women are the sole witnesses of Jesus' crucifixion (15:40-41), burial (with Joseph of Arimathea, 15:47), and resurrection (16:1):
Many manuscripts replace the Hellenistic Maria with the Hebraic Mariam (Miriam, Aaron's sister, Ex. 15:20) in the first reference to the Magdalene (15:40). Some manuscripts do this to both Marys at the burial (15:47). Many manuscripts replace "Joses" in 15:40 with "José," and in 15:47 with "José," "Joseph," "James," or "James and Joses."
In the initial reference to the second Mary, she is overtly called métér; the other two references literally read "the one of" (é, 15:47; é tou, 16:1). Whereas o tou means "the son of" (1:19), é tou never means "the daughter of." The default meaning is "the wife of" (Matt. 1:6b); only the overt indication of motherhood in 15:40 permits a different application in 15:47 and 16:1.
It is clear that there is only one woman named Mary in these texts besides the Magdalene. Less considered, due to the semper virgo dogma, is that this "other Mary" must be Jesus' mother, and thus James the Less is to be equated with James, the brother of Jesus. Otherwise, Mark is in conflict with John's account, which overtly places Jesus' mother at the cross (19:25).
The "longer ending" mentions an encounter between the Magdalene and the risen Christ (16:9), along with a reference to her exorcism (Luke 8:2).
The initial four followers of Jesus are presented as in Mark, with the addition of "Peter" to Simon's name (4:18). Unlike Mark, the term "disciples" is first employed immediately afterwards, in the introduction to the Sermon on the Mount (5:1). The house of Peter's mother-in-law is simply called Peter's house (8:14).
The tax collector summoned to follow Jesus is called Matthew (9:9), thus equating him with Levi son of Alphaeus (Mark 2:14).
The Twelve are listed as follows (10:2-4):
Thaddeus is variously called "Lebbaeus" (one early manuscript), "Lebbaeus surnamed Thaddeus" (many manuscripts), "Thaddeus surnamed Lebbaeus" (one late manuscript), and "Judas the Zealot" (one ancient translation). Variations in "Simon the Cananaean" and "Iscariot" are similar to those in Mark.
The Twelve are specifically mentioned in connection with only four of the seven other such incidents in Mark: the final passion prediction (20:17), the attempt of Zebedee's wife to promote her sons (20:20), the Passover (26:20), and the Great Commission (strictly speaking, the Eleven, 28:16). There is no secondary commission of the Twelve. The discussion of primacy and offense is directed at "the disciples" (18:1), and no one is reported to have accompanied Jesus to Bethany (21:17; "the disciples" returned with him the next day, 21:20).
Peter and the sons of Zebedee appear as a group only at the transfiguration (17:1) and Gethsemane (26:36). No disciple is reported to have been present at the raising of Jairus' daughter (9:23), whose father is not here called Jairus (9:18). A general group of disciples heard the apocalyptic discourse (24:3).
Peter does everything credited to him in Mark, except for pointing out the fig tree's demise (21:20); he also gets no special mention after the resurrection. Several Petrine incidents are added by Matthew: he attempted to walk on the water (14:28), inquired about the principle that speech rather than diet defiles a person (15:15), miraculously received money for the temple tax (17:24), and asked how often forgiveness should be offered (18:21).
Judas Iscariot's activity as Jesus' betrayer (26:14, 26:47) is supplemented by Jesus' designation of him as such (26:25) and the account of his death by hanging (27:3).
No other disciple is specifically mentioned by Matthew. The mother of Zebedee's sons, rather than James and John directly, is presented as having requested special status from Jesus (20:20). The donkey for the entry into Jerusalem was found by two unnamed disciples (21:1), as in Mark, but the Passover preparations are credited to "the disciples" (26:19).
Matthew's infancy narrative states overtly that Mary's husband was named Joseph (1:18). After Jesus' birth, these two doubtless had sexual relations (1:25), but whether Joseph subsequently fathered children by Mary cannot be verified. The name of Jesus' mother is both Maria (1:18) and Mariam (most manuscripts of 1:20).
As in Mark, Jesus' mother and brothers seek an audience with Jesus (12:46-50) and are identified by name at the Nazareth synagogue (13:55), except that in the latter passage Matthew employs the Hellenistic form "Judas" and the Hebraic form "Joseph," and lists Simon before Judas. "Joseph" is replaced by the Hellenistic forms "Joses" and "José" in some manuscripts, and even by "John" in several early ones. Jesus is here called "the carpenter's son" rather than "the carpenter."
Women are the sole witnesses of Jesus' crucifixion (27:55-56), burial (with Joseph of Arimathea, 27:61), and resurrection (28:1), as in Mark:
"Mary" is the preferred spelling in 27:56, but "Miriam" is favored as the name of the Magdalene in 27:61 and 28:1; in the latter, the "other Mary" is also called "Miriam" by some manuscripts. In 27:56, "Joseph" is replaced by "José" in many manuscripts, and "Joses" in one. The original version of one early manuscript incredibly reads, "Mary the Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, Mary the mother of Joseph, and Mary the mother of Zebedee's sons."
"The other Mary" is clearly the mother of James and Joseph, and thus identical with Jesus' mother. The parallel with Mark would suggest that Salome is the mother of Zebedee's sons, but the presence of other women at the cross precludes a definite verdict.
Luke omits the initial call of disciples by the lakeshore. Simon is first mentioned in connection with the healing of his mother-in-law (4:38; one manuscript adds "and Andrew"). The first group of disciples is then gathered after a miraculous catch of fish: Simon Peter (5:3; some manuscripts delete "Peter" in 5:8) and the sons of Zebedee, James and John, referred to as Simon's partners (koinónoi, 5:10).
The tax collector who followed Jesus is simply called Levi (5:27; one manuscript adds "son of Alphaeus"). Luke uniquely states that it was Levi's house at which Jesus subsequently dined with "tax collectors and others" (5:29; one manuscript deletes "and others"; another replaces it with "and sinners"). As in Mark, Jesus' followers are here first called "disciples" (5:30).
The Twelve are listed as follows (6:14-16):
"Iscariot" has several variant spellings, as elsewhere. One manuscript adds that John was James' brother, that both were named "Boanerges," as in Mark, and that Thomas was also called didumos, as in John.
Although they are not formally equated, "Judas son of James" must be the same person as "Judas not Iscariot" in John and "Thaddeus" in Matthew and Mark.
The Twelve are mentioned together with various women prior to the parable of the sower (8:1). As in Mark, they received a secondary commission (9:1) and heard the final passion prediction (18:31). "The apostles" asked for stronger faith (17:5), and were present at the Passover (22:14). The Lucan encounter between the risen Christ and the Eleven included the Emmaus disciples and other unnamed persons (24:33).
Luke uniquely reports the commission of "seventy others" (some manuscripts read "seventy-two") in a manner similar to that of the Twelve (10:1). Seventy was the number of a group of elders who gathered at the tabernacle with Moses and prophesied on one occasion only (Num. 11:25). Seventy-two (six times the number of Israel's tribes) was the total number of elders who prophesied on that occasion, including also Eldad and Medad who remained behind in the camp (Num. 11:26).
Peter, James, and John accompanied Jesus at the raising of Jairus' daughter (8:51) and at the transfiguration (9:28), as in Mark. They are not mentioned in connection with Gethsemane (22:39).
Peter, in common with Mark and Matthew, confessed that Jesus was "the Christ of God" (9:20), declared his intention to give up all for Jesus (18:28, 22:33), and then denied him (22:54). In Luke alone, he questioned Jesus concerning his intended audience during the "travel narrative" (12:41), visited the tomb (24:12), and is said to have had a personal encounter with the risen Christ (24:34).
John tried to prevent an unauthorized exorcism (9:49), as in Mark. James and John wanted to punish the Samaritans by miraculous means (9:54).
Two unnamed disciples procured the donkey for the entry into Jerusalem (19:29). Peter and John are identified as the two who prepared the Passover (22:8).
Judas Iscariot's betrayal is portrayed as elsewhere (22:3, 22:47). That he did not participate in the first Eucharist is not contradicted by Jesus' post-Eucharistic comment, "Behold, the hand of the one betraying me with me on the table" (22:21). This uniquely Lucan text (similar statements in Mark 14:18 and Matt. 26:23 precede the Supper) is not specific as to time, neither does it exclusively refer to Judas, since the high priests (with the scribes, Luke 20:20; with the entire nation, John 18:35) and Pilate (Luke 23:25; John 19:16) are also the subjects of the same verb (paradidómi, "to betray," also rendered "to deliver up" or "to hand over").
Two disciples from Emmaus (Cleopas and an unnamed individual) encountered the risen Christ (24:18). There is no evidence that either of these were members of the Twelve.
Luke's infancy narrative, like Matthew's, names Joseph as Mary's husband (1:27). In addition, Mary is said to be a "relative" (suggenis, 1:36) of Elizabeth, the mother of John the baptist. That Elizabeth was "of the daughters of Aaron" (1:5) implies that Mary herself was of the tribe of Levi. The latter has been overlooked by those who explain Luke's genealogy (3:23) as Mary's, and Matthew's genealogy (Matt. 1:1) as Joseph's. It is far more likely that both are Joseph's, in Luke according to literal ancestry and in Matthew according to royal succession. In the latter, biological links may legitimately be skipped (as between Joram and Uzziah, 1:8), and succession passes to a parallel lineage when the main lineage is terminated (as when Jeconiah, a descendant of Solomon, Matt. 1:7, 12, is succeeded by Shealtiel son of Neri, a descendant of Solomon's brother Nathan, Luke 3:27, 31). That "our Lord has descended from Judah" (Heb. 7:14) and "originated from the seed of David" (Rom. 1:3) is based on his legal descent from Joseph, not his biological descent from Mary. Legal adoption was hardly a partial or theoretical estate for Jesus, any more than it is for Christians (Rom. 8:15; Eph. 1:5). The NT knows nothing of Rabbinic Judaism's later shift to matrilineal descent (the modern definition of a Jew as the child of a Jewish mother or grandmother).
The account of Jesus at age twelve (2:42) proves that until this point Joseph was still alive, and is consistent with the idea that Joseph himself fathered no children by Mary. Luke includes the account of Jesus' mother and brothers seeking an audience with Jesus (8:19-21), but not the passage in which the brothers are named at the Nazareth synagogue (Mark 6:3; Matt. 13:55). In an incident unique to Luke, when an unnamed woman praises Jesus' mother, his reply, "On the contrary, fortunate are those who hear the word of God and preserve it" (11:28) reiterates his mother's absence from his ministry and his minimization of biological kinship.
An anonymous "sinful woman" wet Jesus' feet with her tears, wiped them with her hair, and anointed them with perfume at the house of a Pharisee named Simon (Luke 7:37-38), apparently in Nain (see 7:11). This is similar to the two anointings Jesus received in Bethany during his final week: by Mary the sister of Martha at the house of Lazarus six days before the Passover (John 12:3), and by an anonymous woman at the house of Simon the leper two days before the Passover (Mark 14:3; Matt. 26:6). Although attempts have been made to identify this "sinful woman" with other female characters in the Gospels, none are compelling. Mary the Magdalene is introduced in the next chapter of Luke as a distinct individual, the adulterous woman whose story is commonly inserted into John 8 is pardoned in a quite unrelated manner, and Martha's sister anointed Jesus by a different method: without any tears, she first applied perfume to his feet, then wiped them with her hair.
Luke uniquely lists several female followers of Jesus immediately prior to the parable of the sower (8:2-3): Mary the Magdalene, Joanna wife of Chuza, Susannah (her sole New Testament reference), and unnamed others. The Magdalene's demonic possession (Mark 16:9) is noted, as is Chuza's position as Herod Antipas' epitropos ("procurator" or "viceroy"). Joanna's status, along with the general reference to the temporal provisions made by these women, contradicts the widespread modern notion that Jesus and his disciples led an ascetic lifestyle.
The sisters Mary and Martha appear together for the first time in the uniquely Lucan "travel narrative" (10:38-39). Neither their specific location nor their brother Lazarus are mentioned, and they are not related to any of the anonymous women elsewhere.
Unnamed women are uniquely present on the journey to Calvary (23:27). Unnamed Galilean women appear at the cross (23:49) and burial (23:55). On Easter morning, Mary the Magdalene, Joanna, and Mary the mother of James (Jesus' mother) came to the tomb with unnamed female accomplices (24:10).
Two individuals first followed Jesus in Bethany of Transjordan upon the recommendation of John the Baptist (1:28, 1:36-37). One of these is unidentified; the other is Andrew, who subsequently recruited his brother Simon (1:40). Jesus at this point gave Simon the name Peter; John uniquely provides the Aramaic equivalent of the latter, "Cephas" (1:42).
Jesus then recruited Philip, who is identified as a native of Bethsaida along with Andrew and Peter (1:44). In view of Mark's account (1:21 and 1:29), the latter pair subsequently moved to Capernaum, where the house of Simon's mother-in-law was located.
Philip, in parallel to Andrew, recruited Nathanael (1:45), who is later identified as a native of Cana (21:2). Jesus' followers are first called disciples at the wedding reception in Cana (2:2).
Jesus' mother appears for the first time at the wedding reception in Cana (2:1). Jesus there rebuked his mother's attempt to direct the course of his ministry, employing a phrase which occurs elsewhere between himself and demons (compare 2:4a with Mark 5:7). The first reference to his brothers, who joined his disciples in Capernaum (2:12), is also the last reference to his mother prior to the crucifixion. The brothers would later encourage Jesus' attendance at the Feast of Booths, which Jesus initially declined because of their unbelief (7:2-9).
The term "apostle" occurs only once in John, in a definitional statement (13:16; the verb apostelló has the disciples as its object in 17:18). The Twelve (never "the twelve disciples") appear only at the conclusion of the miraculous feeding (6:67) and after the resurrection (20:24), and are never individually named.
In addition to the references in chapter 1, John mentions specific disciples in connection with three events: the feeding of the 5,000 (ch. 6), the final journey to Jerusalem (chs. 11-12), and Jesus' death and resurrection (chs. 13-21).
Philip discussed possible provisions for the 5,000 (6:5), was approached by Greeks who desired an audience with Jesus (12:20), and asked Jesus to reveal the Father to the disciples (14:8).
Andrew noted that a boy among the 5,000 possessed five loaves and two fish (6:8). With Philip, he presented Jesus with the Greeks' request for an audience (12:22).
Simon Peter confessed that Jesus was the Holy One of God (6:67). He objected to Jesus' act of foot washing (13:6) and inquired of the "beloved disciple" concerning the identity of Jesus' betrayer (13:24). He asked Jesus where he was going (13:36) and pledged to give up his life for him (13:37). He is identified as the one who cut off Malchus' ear in Gethsemane (18:10), and denied knowing Jesus while witnessing his preliminary hearing before Annas (18:15). Together with the "befriended disciple," he visited the tomb (20:2).
Judas Iscariot is first identified for the reader as Jesus' betrayer in the wake of Peter's confession (6:71, where John uniquely calls him the son of Simon Iscariot). Also unique to John is the repeated assertion that Judas acted under the influence of the devil or Satan (6:70, 13:2, and 13:27). Judas personally objected to the anointing of Jesus by Mary the sister of Martha (12:4), and is asserted to have been both the keeper of the disciples' treasury and its embezzler (12:6). After Jesus washed his disciples' feet, he identified Judas as his betrayer at the request of Peter and the "beloved disciple" (13:26). Judas immediately left (13:30), and later supervised Jesus' arrest in a garden frequented by the disciples (18:2).
Thomas mocked Jesus' tardy visit to Lazarus (11:16) and repeated Peter's question about Jesus' destination (14:5). He was absent from Jesus' Easter evening meeting with the Twelve (20:24), having rejected their resurrection witness, but was present one week later (20:26). The defiance he exhibited in connection with the resurrections of Lazarus and Jesus may be the source of the nickname which appears in these two contexts: didumos, "double," which in Deuteronomy 25:11 means "testicle." There is no evidence that Thomas was the twin brother of anyone.
"Judas not Iscariot" asked Jesus about his revelation to the disciples rather than to the world (14:22). This is doubtless Judas son of James, otherwise known as Thaddeus.
"Another disciple" (allos mathétés, 18:15) "known to the high priest" entered the latter's courtyard with Peter during Jesus' preliminary hearing, an incident unique to this Gospel. This is almost certainly the same person as the "other disciple" (again, allos mathétés) "whom Jesus befriended" (phileó, 20:2; amo in the Latin Vulgate), who later accompanied Peter to the tomb. The verb indicates that this is not the disciple "whom Jesus loved" (agapaó, 13:23; diligo in the Latin Vulgate), encountered elsewhere in the Johannine passion narrative. Traditionally, John son of Zebedee has been the leading candidate for this "other disciple," based on his association with Peter in the Apostolic Acts. The merger of this disciple with the "beloved disciple" caused John to be identified with the latter as well. In fact, John's Gospel states flatly that "the one whom Jesus befriended" was Lazarus (11:3, 11:35). Indeed, a well-known resident of Bethany (11:18-19) was far more likely to have been "known to the high priest" than a Galilean fisherman. That "the high priests" were also discussing executing Lazarus (12:10) does not mean that all had so agreed, and Lazarus needed only the acquiescence of one (namely Annas, 18:13) to gain entrance to the preliminary hearing, at which no other priest is said to have been present. While no definitive evidence exists to identify the disciple who along with Andrew originally followed John the baptist (1:37), in view of his unique role in this Gospel, Lazarus is as likely a candidate as any.
Jesus' final resurrection appearance involved the following (21:2):
One of the above was the "beloved disciple" (21:7).
The following members of the Twelve according to the synoptic Gospels are not overtly mentioned by John: Bartholomew, Matthew, James son of Alphaeus, and Simon from Cana. Nathanael is widely believed to be Bartholomew; the latter is strictly speaking a surname, "son of Tolmai" in Aramaic. The placing of Bartholomew immediately after Philip in all synoptic lists parallels the Johannine call of Nathanael by Philip.
Mary the Magdalene is sometimes identified with the adulterous woman of John 7:53-8:11, but there is no textual evidence to support this. Indeed, this account is not a valid part of John's Gospel according to most early manuscripts. Its requirement of personal sinlessness before one can judge another (8:7) would appear to contradict numerous biblical texts (notably Acts 5 and 1 Cor. 5). Furthermore, its insertion at this point in John obscures the connection between the Pharisees' assertion that no prophet comes from Galilee (7:52) and Jesus' reply, based on Isaiah 9:1-2, that Galilee is in fact the source of the light of the world (8:12).
At the cross, John places the mother of Jesus (whom he nowhere calls "Mary"), Mary the wife of Clopas, and Mary the Magdalene (19:25); "his mother's sister" describes Mary the wife of Clopas, not a separate individual. The semper virgo dogma resulted in attempts to make the latter the "other Mary" whose sons included James and Joses, with Alphaeus the same person as Clopas. The latter (Klópas) is not an alternate spelling of Cleopas (Kleopas, the masculine form of "Cleopatra," Luke 24:18), much less a variant of Alphaeus. Since it is highly unlikely that any family would give two daughters the same name, Jesus' mother and Clopas' wife are to be viewed as sisters-in-law. Clopas could not have been Joseph's brother, since in Scripture husband's brother's wife is not "sister" but "fellow bride" (sunnumphos, the relationship of Ruth to Orpah, Ruth 1:15). Either Clopas' wife was Joseph's sister, or Clopas was Mary's brother.
No women are mentioned as witnesses of the burial, at which John uniquely presents Nicodemus assisting Joseph of Arimathea (19:39).
The "disciple whom Jesus loved" (agapaó) first appears at the meal at which Jesus washed his disciples' feet; this event has nothing in common with the Last Supper beyond the presence of Jesus, Peter, and Judas, thus its attendees would not have been limited to the Twelve. The "beloved disciple" inquired of Jesus concerning his betrayer's identity (13:22), "reclined in Jesus' lap" (13:23; the translation "leaned on Jesus' breast" tends to obscure the intimacy of this scene), and was the primary source of the Gospel (21:24). The latter cannot have been John son of Zebedee, who distinguished himself from "that disciple" by employing first person pronouns in 21:24-25. That so many commentators could have misread "we know that the witness of that disciple is true" as "I John know that my own witness is true," or have thought that an apostle required the testimony of anonymous persons, is a graphic example of the power of uncritically retained ecclesiastical traditions.
The repeated use of the masculine pronoun autos in these texts does not confirm that this disciple was male, just as the use of the neuter pronoun auto with reference to the infant Jesus (Matt. 2:13) does not deny his personhood. Both pronouns merely reflect the fact that their respective antecedents (mathétés, "disciple," and paidion, "infant") are grammatically masculine and neuter. Moreover, masculine words for offices are not always given feminine forms in Greek when women receive them (e.g. Phoebe the diakonos, Rom. 16:1). There is indeed a distinctive Greek term for "female disciple" (mathétria), but it is employed only by Luke (the sole native Greek author in the NT), and only of Dorcas (Acts 9:36). To assert that the latter term was equally part of the Palestinian vocabulary is to deny that there were any female disciples in the Gospels. Since the Hebrew word for "disciple" (talmid) has no feminine form, the Hebraic authors of NT material (including the sources of Luke's Gospel) would have had no reason to employ mathétria.
The crucifixion scene (19:25) provides compelling evidence that the "beloved disciple" was Mary the Magdalene. Unlike the synoptic Gospels, John mentions no anonymous women at this point. As a result, the subsequent reference to the "beloved disciple" assumes that the latter is either Clopas' wife (an otherwise unmentioned character, whose marital status is inconsistent with her having "reclined in Jesus' lap" in 13:23) or the Magdalene. Jesus' comment to his mother, "Woman, look at your son" (19:26) assumes Jesus himself as "your son," for this is apparently the first time Jesus had seen his mother in years, their last stated contact being at the wedding reception at Cana (John 2:1-12). That "your son" does not refer to the "beloved disciple" is supported by the fact that Jesus' next statement, "Look at your mother," does not begin with "son." The latter comment resulted in the "beloved disciple" taking Jesus' mother into, not "his own home," but rather "the personal things" (ta idia), meaning the details of this disciple's unique relationship to Jesus. The notion that John son of Zebedee would have taken custody of Mary after Jesus' ascension of course requires that she had no living husband or children other than Jesus, and contradicts the levirate rule (Gen. 38:8; Deut. 25:5-6; Ruth 3:9; Mark 12:18-19), by which a deceased husband's male relatives are responsible for his widow.
On the other hand, it would seem that the only character in the Gospels with a sufficiently intimate relationship with Jesus to be called his "beloved disciple" is Mary the sister of Martha, who is introduced in John as the one who anointed Jesus' feet and wiped them with her hair (11:1-2), which she performed at her brother Lazarus' house in Bethany six days before the final Passover (12:3). That Mary the Magdalene and Mary the sister of Martha are in fact the same person is not unknown in church tradition. Indeed, no text in Scripture presents them as distinct characters. Unless they are one and the same, the Gospels are advancing the incredible notion that Martha's sister, despite possessing "the one thing of which there is need" (Luke 10:42) and having done something near Jerusalem just before Jesus died which would be remembered wherever the Gospel would be preached (Mark 14:9), was nevertheless not present at the cross or any of the post-resurrection events. The identification of Martha's sister with the Magdalene is not contradicted by the latter's surname. Mary and Martha did not live in Bethany, but in "a certain village" not otherwise identified (Luke 10:38); Bethany was the location not of Martha's house, but that of Lazarus (John 11:1). English translations cannot easily reproduce the distinction in the latter text between Bethany as the village from which (apo) Lazarus currently came, and the village of Mary and Martha out of which (ek) he originally came. The idea would be that Martha and Mary normally lived in this family's ancestral home in Magdala, and stayed with their brother in Bethany when they attended festivals in Jerusalem.
On Easter, the Magdalene is portrayed as the first to visit the tomb (John 20:1). After Peter and the "befriended disciple" (Lazarus) came and left, the Magdalene (identified as such in 20:18) had an encounter with Jesus fully consistent with her being his "beloved disciple." The statement that she should not "touch" him (20:17) has puzzled many, since they could not conceive of Jesus being physically intimate with a woman. Nevertheless, Paul (1 Cor. 7:1) establishes the sexual entailment of this verb. Mary can hardly be faulted for hoping that the second Adam (Rom. 5:14) might imitate the first Adam in this regard also (Gen. 2:18-25). Jesus' refusal is due to a superceding mission, not a denigration of sexuality.
The Magdalene does not appear again by name in the NT, although it is not impossible that she is the Mary of Romans 16:6. Based on her association with John in the production of his Gospel and her unique relationship to Jesus, it is more likely that she is the "lady" (Gk. kuria, "wife of a lord") to whom 2 John is addressed; her "elect sister" (v. 13) would then be Martha. That the father of her children (v. 1) might be Jesus is highly unlikely, since regardless of when they might have been conceived, Jesus would not have been in a position to fulfill any parental duties. Unless John son of Zebedee is himself the father, the identity of the latter must remain a mystery.
The identification of Mary the Magdalene, sister of Martha and Lazarus, as the primary source of the fourth Gospel goes far toward solving the problems of Gospel interrelationships which have dominated NT studies in the last two centuries. John's unique perspective is not due to some later anonymous community which lacked reliable historical sources, or which desired a "Christian" alternative to Greek and Gnostic myths. His Gospel is Jerusalem centered because his source was associated with nearby Bethany, and as a result she witnessed a number of events at which the Galilean disciples were not present. At the same time, her Galilean residence explains her access to stories common to the synoptic Gospels (notably the feeding of the 5,000, ch. 6, and the healing of the imperial officer's son, ch. 4) as well as other Galilean events involving crowds (notably the wedding reception at Cana, ch. 2). Affirming Mary the Magdalene's authorship of the Gospel and the stylistically similar First Epistle of John also eliminates the temptation to regard John's Revelation, the only NT book associated with John whose text actually names John as its author, as a forgery or the product of an otherwise unknown "John the elder." In this way, a balance is struck between male chauvinism (the "traditional" view that women made no contribution to the NT) and feminism (the "modernist" view that women were themselves apostles and pastors) by allowing a woman's testimony to establish some of the NT's most familiar scenes and statements, but only under the authority of a male apostle.
"The apostles" received Jesus' final instructions (1:2) and witnessed his ascension. Their listing (1:13-14) is here compared with those in the synoptic Gospels:
| Mark | Matthew | Luke | Acts |
|---|---|---|---|
| Simon Peter | Simon Peter | Simon Peter | Peter |
| James b. Zebedee | Andrew | Andrew | John |
| John | James b. Zebedee | James | James |
| Andrew | John | John | Andrew |
| Philip | Philip | Philip | Philip |
| Bartholomew | Bartholomew | Bartholomew | Thomas |
| Matthew | Thomas | Matthew | Bartholomew |
| Thomas | Matthew | Thomas | Matthew |
| James b. Alphaeus | James b. Alphaeus | James b. Alphaeus | James b. Alphaeus |
| Thaddeus | Thaddeus | Simon the Zealot | Simon the Zealot |
| Simon of Cana | Simon of Cana | Judas b. James | Judas b. James |
| Judas Iscariot | Judas Iscariot | Judas Iscariot | Matthias |
Between Peter and Philip, many late manuscripts of the Apostolic Acts employ the Marcan sequence, and one late manuscript employs the sequence of Matthew and Luke.
Judas Iscariot was replaced by Matthias (1:26), chosen by lot over Joseph Barsabbas Justus (1:23; one early manuscript reads "Barnabas"). Mary mother of Jesus, Jesus' brothers, and unnamed women (one early manuscript adds "and children") gathered for worship with the apostles from the earliest period (1:14).
The apostolic group taught (2:42, 4:33), performed miracles (2:43, 5:12), and received temporal offerings (4:35). They were arrested (5:18) and flogged (5:40), but remained in Jerusalem during the great persecution which followed Stephen's execution (8:1).
Peter preached sermons on Pentecost (2:14), at Solomon's Portico (3:12), and before the Sanhedrin (4:8). He conducted the baptisms of the initial 3,000 converts (2:41) and of Cornelius the centurion in Caesarea (10:48). He presided over the election of Matthias (1:15) and the excommunication of Ananias and Sapphira (5:3). He performed miracles at Solomon's Portico (5:15), at Lydda for Aeneas (9:33), and at Joppa for Tabitha (9:36; "Dorcas" in Greek, "gazelle" in English). He was arrested at the time of James son of Zebedee's death (12:3), was miraculously released (12:9), and apparently permanently relocated to Caesarea (12:19). He made the first recorded speech at the Jerusalem Council, in defense of Gentile converts (15:7).
Peter and John performed a miracle for a beggar at the temple (3:1), were arrested together (4:3), and offered a joint prayer after their release (4:24). They performed an imposition of hands on converts in Samaria (8:17) and conducted further ministry throughout that region (8:25). John is not mentioned after the death of his brother James (12:2).
The first major Christian character in the Apostolic Acts other than one of the Twelve was Joseph Barnabas (4:36; many late manuscripts read "Joses," and one late manuscript reads "Barsabbas"), identified as a Levite from Cyprus. The name Barnabas ("son of encouragement") was conferred upon him by the Twelve. He was later appointed by the apostles to supervise the ministry at Antioch (11:22). With Paul, he brought famine relief to Judea (11:30), participated in the First Missionary Journey (13:2), and testified at the Jerusalem Council (15:12). He then fell out with Paul over the role of John Mark (15:37), with whom he subsequently returned to Cyprus when Paul embarked on the Second Missionary Journey (15:39-40).
The Seven were a second group of ministers selected by the Twelve (6:5): Stephen, Philip, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parmenas, and Nicolaus from Antioch. All had Greek names, consistent with their supervision of culturally Greek members of the community (6:1). Although they were to perform "daily ministry" (diakonia), they are nowhere called "deacons." This ministry, which involved "tables" (6:2), was not a charitable distribution of groceries. The only food served by the church was the Eucharist (2:42), which was offered at a "table" (Luke 22:21, 1 Cor. 10:21). The misreading of this text is due to the widespread secularization of the church's mission as a poverty relief program, as well as the minimization of the Eucharist by many Protestants, with special offense at the "Catholic" practice of a daily Eucharist. Philip the apostle was included among the Seven for obvious reasons. His Greek name (the only other apostle with such a name was Andrew; see John 12:22) marked him as culturally aligned with the objects of this ministry. An apostolic presence in this group prevented it from developing into a second class congregation or a rival sect.
There is no evidence for two Philips in the Apostolic Acts. The apostle was the missionary to the Samaritans (8:5), the baptizer of the Ethiopian eunuch (8:26), the minister in Caesarea (8:40) who may have worked with Peter after the latter moved there (12:19), and the father of four prophetesses (21:9). He is called "the evangelist" when Luke and Paul stayed at his house at the end of the Third Missionary Journey (21:8), which suggests that he may have been a major source for Luke's writings. This designation does not mark a separate individual, just as "the prisoner" (Phlmn. 1) is not a different Paul than "the apostle" (1 Tim. 1:1). After Philip took his new assignment, he was no longer formally considered an apostle. The latter term is never again associated with the name "Philip," neither are the apostles again referred to as "the Twelve" after 6:2. The distinction between Philip (8:5) and "the apostles" (8:1) is thus due to his new vocation rather than the existence of a second Philip.
The instantaneous transportation of Philip from the Gaza Road to Ashdod (Gk. Azótos, 8:39-40) is a most peculiar event. The only New Testament parallels are the man caught up to Paradise (2 Cor. 12:2; not Paul himself, since "he" does not mean "I") and the "male son" of the Apocalypse (Rev. 12:5; not Jesus in his first advent, since this child neither dies nor rises, and bears no mark of divine incarnation). It remains uncertain why Philip, as opposed to any other character in the Apostolic Acts, should have had such an experience, especially since it comes in response to no persecution or ministerial necessity and is never repeated.
Stephen's qualifications (6:3, 6:5), as well as his performing of miracles (6:8) and preaching (6:10), mark his office as that of a minister of the Gospel, not the manager of a charity or "social ministry" project. His lengthy analysis of Old Testament salvation history (7:2-53) is fully the equal of the sermons of Peter and Paul. The latter's own ministry was doubtless motivated in part by the constant reminder that his involvement in Stephen's death had deprived the church of one of its greatest theologians.
Saul (from Tarsus, 9:11) first appears as a conspirator in the stoning of Stephen (7:58, 8:1) and as the chief persecutor of the church (8:3). He was converted, not by his vision on the road to Damascus (9:3), but by his baptism from Ananias (9:18). He first met the apostles through Barnabas (9:27), who later enlisted Saul in the ministry at Antioch (11:25). Together these two brought famine relief to the Jerusalem church (11:30). His new name (13:9) was taken from that of his first convert, Sergius Paulus (13:7).
James son of Zebedee was arrested and executed by Herod Agrippa the First (12:2). After this, the New Testament speaks of only one person named James (e.g. 15:13), without any additional designation. Thus Paul met with "James the Lord's brother" three years after his conversion (Gal. 1:19), but with "James" fourteen years later (Gal. 2:1, 9).
The semper virgo dogma permits identifying James son of Alphaeus, James the Less, and James brother of Jesus, provided however that the latter is reconfigured as Jesus' cousin. Those who deny semper virgo, and thus affirm James as Jesus' half-brother, have apparently balked at the idea that Mary took a second husband after Joseph, and therefore distinguish the Lord's brother from the son of Alphaeus. When such assumptions are set aside, it becomes clear that Mary became Alphaeus' spouse after Joseph's death; indeed, Alphaeus was probably Joseph's brother, who took Mary in agreement with the levirate marriage rule. James, as Alphaeus' oldest son by Mary, could have been as old as eighteen when Jesus began his public ministry, and thus would have been able to join the Twelve. James' brothers would probably have been too young at this point, thus the author of the epistle of Jude ("James' brother," Jude 1) was not himself called an apostle.
Since there is no evidence of two men named Alphaeus in the New Testament, it may be further assumed that Levi son of Alphaeus (Matthew) was the son of James' father by another woman, making Matthew a legal relative of Jesus. This would explain why a tax collector so easily followed Jesus without preliminary (Matt. 9:9), how an otherwise unremarkable apostle came to write a Gospel, how that apostle came into possession of the details of Jesus' infancy, and why James' epistle has such close affinities with Matthew's Gospel (compare Jas. 5:12 with Matt. 5:34-37). This also raises the possibility, certain to offend supporters of "traditional" morality, that the Lord's mother was involved in a plural marriage, since it is impossible to verify whether Alphaeus' other wife had died prior to his union with Mary (in Scripture, a man's current marital status is irrelevant to his participation in a levirate marriage).
John Mark's first appearance in the Apostolic Acts (12:12) is ten verses after the final reference to John son of Zebedee. His mother is identified simply as Mary, and Jerusalem is portrayed as their hometown. The style of the Gospels of John Mark and John son of Zebedee are far too different to permit viewing "Mark" as simply a new alias for the apostle. For example, Mark's distinctive use of euthus ("immediately," 11 times in Mark 1 alone) contrasts sharply with the son of Zebedee's equally distinctive use of meta touto ("after this," John 2:12, Rev. 7:1) and meta tauta ("after these things," John 3:22, Rev. 7:9). Neither can John Mark be the same person as Mark son of Peter (1 Pet. 5:13). Peter did not behave at the house of Mary and John Mark as a husband or father would have (Acts 12:17). The notion that "Mark my son" means "John Mark my co-worker" borders on the absurd, and is doubtless due to the presumption of a celibate apostolate. Peter is referring to his own biological son, who may well have been named after John Mark.
If John Mark were simply a random disciple who joined the church in Jerusalem relatively late, it is difficult to understand how such a peripheral individual could have come to author a Gospel, especially if the modern analysis of Mark as the first Gospel is correct. The late dating of Mark, in order to afford John Mark sufficient time to achieve the necessary status in the church, coupled with the theory of Marcan priority, leaves the apostolic congregations with no written version of the Gospel for over thirty years. There would have thus been no basis for preaching and teaching in the churches founded by Paul outside of Palestine. That John Mark was the cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4:10) would not of itself grant Mark sufficient standing to write a Gospel, especially in view of his dubious performance as Paul's assistant (Acts 13:13, 15:38).
On the other hand, if John Mark were part of the Jerusalem church from its inception, with some special reason to be noticed by the apostles, he could have authored the first Gospel before Paul's First Missionary Journey. Indeed, this would explain why John Mark was taken on that journey. John Mark would have gained early status if his mother Mary were one of the Marys in the Gospels. The only unproblematic candidate is Mary the wife of Clopas, the sister-in-law of Jesus' mother, whose lone appearance (at the crucifixion, John 19:25) is consistent with a person who owned a house in Jerusalem. If valid, this would make John Mark one of Jesus' cousins, and also place Barnabas among Jesus' relatives. The identity of the latter as a Levite is consistent with the apparent descent of Jesus' mother (Luke 1:36), and would make it more likely that Jesus' mother was the sister of Clopas rather than Joseph being the brother of Clopas' wife, inasmuch as the latter would be less consistent with the Levitical lineage of these persons. This theory also would explain why, if Mark is indeed the naked young man in Gethsemane (Mark 14:51), he found himself in such a predicament. As Jesus' cousin, he would have had special cause to go out late at night to investigate his famous relative's exploits. The house of one of Jesus' relatives was a natural meeting place for the Jerusalem church, in which one can easily picture one of the family members taking notes as Peter presented the history of Jesus' Galilean ministry.
The major reason why such a theory has not previously been considered is, once again, the semper virgo dogma. To prevent Mary from having any children, Jesus' brothers were reassigned to Mary the wife of Clopas, making it impossible for her to be considered as the mother of John Mark.
This partner of Silas (15:22; one manuscript gives his surname as "Barabbas") is almost certainly not the Lord's brother or the apostle also known as Thaddeus. He might be the person at whose home in Damascus Paul was converted (9:11). Another possibility is that he was the brother of Joseph Barsabbas Justus (1:23).
First mentioned as Judas Barsabbas' partner in distributing the letter from the Jerusalem Council (15:22), Silas became Paul's primary companion after the latter broke with Barnabas (15:40), and later assisted Timothy (17:14). He is never quoted, nor does he act on his own in any capacity. Outside of the Apostolic Acts, an individual named Silvanus is mentioned as the co-author of 1 Peter (5:12) and a partner of Paul and Timothy (2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1). The latter references all but prove that Silas (the Greek spelling of Sila, which is the Aramaic form of Saul) and Silvanus (Gk. silouanos, the Roman god of forests) are the same person. Whereas every member of the Pauline group has been proposed as the anonymous author of Hebrews, the argument on behalf of Silas is supported by his unique association with Timothy (Heb. 13:23) and the stylistic similarities between Hebrews and 1 Peter.
Lucius the Cyrenean, one of the ministers at Antioch (13:1), is probably not Paul's relative of the same name (Rom. 16:21). Even more unlikely is the proposal that either of these individuals (Loukios) is the same as Luke (Loukas), the author of the third Gospel and the Apostolic Acts. The latter is mentioned by name only in Paul's letters, and always in tandem with a Pauline co-worker named Demas (Col. 4:14, where Luke is called "the beloved physician"; 2 Tim. 4:11, after a reference to Demas abandoning Paul; Phlmn. 24, where Luke is also grouped with John Mark).
Luke is generally assumed to have inserted himself into the narrative of the Apostolic Acts wherever the subject changes from "they" to "we." According to most manuscripts, this first occurs in 16:10-11, strongly suggesting that Luke was a native of Troas, the name of both the city of Alexandria Troas on the northwest coast of modern Turkey, and the province in which it is located. The latter includes the ancient city of Troy, about twenty miles to the north of Alexandria Troas.
The events in the Apostolic Acts apparently shared by Luke occurred during three periods:
In Codex Bezae, an eccentric fifth century manuscript, the phrase "after we gathered together" introduces Agabus' prophecy of a widespread famine (11:28). This would mean that prior to Paul's First Missionary Journey, Luke had become a member of the church at Antioch, and was possibly a native of that city. This variant reading may have been inspired by the notion that Luke was the same person as Lucius the Cyrenean.
Titus was apparently a Greek convert from Antioch, who accompanied Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem for the debate over ministry to non-Jews (Gal. 2:1-3). In the Apostolic Acts, Luke refers only to "certain others" beside Paul and Barnabas who came from Antioch (Acts 15:2). That Luke failed to mention Titus by name because they were relatives lacks evidence (see their unremarkable adjacent references in 2 Tim. 4:10-11).
It is not impossible that Titus was the same person as the Corinthian convert Justus (most manuscripts of Acts 18:7; "Titus Justus" according to Codex Sinaiticus, "Titius Justus" according to original Codex Vaticanus), whose residence Paul shared for a time. After the Jerusalem Council, Paul and Titus appear to have had few direct associations; a major exception involved the church at Corinth (2 Cor. 7:6, 8:23, 12:18).
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